Nutrition Management

Technical questions often asked by farmers about Nutrition Management.

Grapevines

Cereals

Legumes

Fertiliser nutrient management

Carbon dioxide and water management

Trace elements nutrition management

Biomass nutrition management

Problems in nutrition management

GRAPEVINES

I am interested in liquid fertilisers for grapevines as I have recently purchased a vineyard.  Can you provide me with some practical information on nutrition management of grapes?

Information regarding the nutritional responses of grapes to liquid fertilisers is scarce, especially in relation to drip or micro sprinkler irrigation. The widespread adoption of drip irrigation in Australia has highlighted the importance of achieving quality and productivity of crops through controlled nutrition and irrigation.
Before the advent of drip irrigation for grapevines, NPKS fertilisers were spread on the soil between rows followed by shallow incorporation. Response to potassium in K-fixing soils, for example, sometimes took two years before it could be detected or measured. Nowadays, balanced liquid formulations containing NPK, secondary nutrients and trace elements can bring about an almost immediate growth response from the vine when they are applied through the drip line. This is because vine roots become concentrated not far below the drippers, which provide the all-important water and nutrients to the vine.
By using drip or micro sprinkler irrigation, nutrients can be targeted for instant uptake, increasing fertiliser-use efficiency with significant savings in fertiliser, increased quality and productivity. Some growers have now started to improve nutrient uptake through optimising soil pH by applying liquid lime (see Technical Questions) through the drippers. If liquid lime is to be added through drippers, stainless steel filters of a suitable mesh size should be used to prevent blockage of drippers. Increasing the soil pH close to drippers with liquid lime, to pH 6 – 6.5, is particularly useful for reducing aluminium activity and toxicity in acid soils.
An emerging area of interest in grapevine nutrition is the relationship between nutrition and watering regimes to vine growth and grape quality, which is so important for making good-tasting wine. Additional water improves uptake of soluble nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus, but with grapes there is a conflicting need to limit the water supply, using deficit irrigation, to improve quality, The role of organic matter in this regard is very important, and we should see advances in this area. Other interesting areas are the role of calcium, magnesium and sulphur in relation to NPK and trace elements on leaf photosynthesis function, cluster and berry size; and the nutrient uptake differences between varieties.
Now more than ever, the enormous increase in the number of newly established vineyards in Australia will create a demand for quality grapes leading to increasing reliance on improved nutrition. Western Fertiliser Technology Pty Ltd is a supplier of quality liquid fertiliser products ideally suited for application through drip irrigation for your vines. Their exceptional solubility and availability to plants derives from the use of quality ingredients in a natural organic base of fish emulsion, and the inclusion with NPKS of calcium and magnesium-buffered compounds and trace element chelates able to maintain their solubility and availability within a wide pH range.
The links between quality, productivity and nutrition
Frequently, it is seen that many vineyards established on marginal or nutrient-depleted soils suffer a decline in the quality and quantity of grapes, together with an increased incidence of leaf and root disease and insect pests. The cause is often a weak link in nutrition, which can be easily corrected through foliar or drip applications. Often, the problem is due to an acid soil pH and soluble aluminium at pH levels of 5 down to 3.5, which interferes with the biological mineralisation and uptake of nutrients by roots. Soluble aluminium disrupts rapidly growing meristem tissue. Lime is obviously needed, but the type of lime is important if the aluminium and acidic compounds are to be removed without soil disturbance.
The technology and use of liquid lime has been discussed earlier (see Technical Questions), and its timing and amounts to apply is particularly relevant in dripper irrigation. Liquid lime should be judiciously applied to raise the soil pH around the drippers (where the roots are) in a steady sustained way without causing any nutrient imbalances. The availability of the irrigated nutrients and vine health should improve with a steady decrease of soil acids, the reduction of toxic aluminium compounds, and an increase of beneficial microbial activity.
Less damage by disease and pests
A reduction in the incidence of disease and pest problems has been reported with the use of WFT products. The NPK and micronutrients in WFT products improves photosynthesis markedly in foliage, which is able to synthesise a full range of sugars and proteins needed for energy and immunity function to resist disease and pests. Insect pests are less attracted to leaves and fruit containing a high level of soluble sugar and other carbohydrates. The sugars and proteins are mobilised to the roots, which then have the energy to assimilate needed minerals from applied fertiliser and the soil. Potassium, calcium and magnesium are particularly important nutrients in this regard, as they play a role in root cell turgidity which offers protection against fungal attack, and the buffer-control of cell-sap pH for optimum enzymic activity. Calcium containing liquid fertilisers helps to improve water infiltration and to counter a reduction in water infiltration from potassium.
Winegrowers report increased vigour and resistance to frost damage, and fungal diseases such as mildew and bunch rot, together with decreased activity of insect pests. Fungicides will treat disease infection, but they cannot cure disease due to nutrient deficiency. Growers also report crops being able to withstand very hot conditions without visible moisture stress. Use of WFT products have also been attributed to improved colour development, uniform size of berries and sweetness, which can be related to enhanced photosynthesis and general vine health.
Nutritional aspects of management
If you intend to increase the size of your vineyard, determine whether soil amendments are needed, by sending a soil sample for analysis; usually pH, organic carbon, electrical conductivity, exchangeable potassium and sodium, and Calcium, Magnesium, Boron, and Phosphorus levels. Grapes are tolerant to quite a wide range of soil pH and textures. However they perform best where soil pH is between 5.5 and 7.0. If adding lime to depth at planting, dolomitic lime (CaCO3.MgCO3) containing both calcium and magnesium is preferable to calcium-only limestone (CaCO3).
Wine quality is strongly influenced by nutrition, cultivar, fruit quality and freedom from disease; and of course, the ability of the vintner to create an unforgettable wine. When you are selecting cultivars to grow, it is advisable to obtain local recommendations to suit the type of soil. In the famous Margaret River region of Western Australia, European wine grapes such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz, Merlot, Pinot Noir, Chardonnay, Riesling, etc are popular.
Grapes benefit from shallow cultivation in the early part of the season, taking care not to disturb roots. A legume cover crop between the rows should provide nitrogen and humus and reduce erosion. It is best to delay pruning to increase cold hardiness. Late pruning allows the small stems to translocate most of their nutrient resources back to the main stem, conserving nutrients. Practise balanced pruning as excessive pruning results in excessive vegetative growth and lower quality fruit due to less K, Ca and Mg in the fruit. The optimum number of buds (nodes) to retain will depend on the variety you choose, which will affect quality and productivity due to how well nutrients are shared. The ideal grape canopy has a large number of leaves set for maximum sunlight exposure for photosynthesis, maximising fruit yield and quality. Positioning of shoots for sunlight exposure (on both sides of the canopy) should be done before bloom.
Use nitrogen judiciously, as high nitrates can cause a large number of immature green shoots and delayed ripening. However, if nitrogen is needed to boost growth, liquid fertilisers containing potassium nitrate and calcium nitrate are preferable.
Thinning of flower-clusters before bloom complements pruning to improve quality of grapes and increase cluster size and length by conserving nutrients. However, if balanced and adequate nutrition is practiced, thinning can be avoided (saves labour), whilst increasing yields considerably.
Liquid Fertilisers
An early start to feeding has a pronounced effect on productivity and quality as time is made available for the translocation of less mobile but vital nutrients to growing points. Apply liquid fertiliser on a weekly basis through the drip line. Complete nutrient-balanced formulations such as Super Liquid NPK and Mono Calphos containing nitrogen and micronutrients, applied early, promotes early spring growth and allows reduced levels of nitrates in tissues in late summer, improving quality.
Base fertiliser applications on the amount and quality of vegetative growth and petiole analysis as the season progresses. Petioles should be sampled at veraison, and the most recently matured leaf is usually chosen. Wash petioles in distilled water and dry thoroughly before sending away for analysis.
If growth is excessive, reduce the quantity of the balanced fertiliser. If leaves have poor colour, and pruning weights are low, increase the amount of liquid fertiliser used.
Phosphorus levels in the vines should be maintained at adequate to high levels early in the season for optimum photosynthesis and yield. Low levels of phosphorus are often due to insufficient nitrogen, low organic matter in the soil, high soil aluminium or the use of an inappropriate type of liquid fertiliser. Mono Calphos, Super Liquid NPK and Hortigro are ideal for supplying rapidly available phosphorus together with other nutrients. Calcium and magnesium are useful as balancing nutrients for soils supplying very high potassium. Deficiencies of calcium, magnesium and sulphur, combined with high potassium can affect wine-keeping quality.
Deficiency of potassium in sandy or gravel type soils can be avoided by using high K liquid fertilisers such as NPK Green. Deficiency causes uneven colouring of fruit, with fewer and smaller clusters. Severe deficiency leads to dehydrated berries and low sugar levels at harvest.
Copper and manganese deficiencies are common in WA, and can be quickly corrected with Super Energy. Petiole sampling at flowering, followed by timely analysis allows corrective foliar applications. Analysis kits and directions for leaf sampling are available from local suppliers.
Boron is an element to monitor carefully for grapevines. Deficiency leads to yellowed foliage in early growth, and uneven, sometimes deformed fruit and reduced cluster size. Deficiency is rapidly corrected by applying Soil and Foliar Boron. Interpretation of leaf disorders is best accomplished by sending for analysis samples of poor growth together with good growth from healthy vines for comparison.
Nutrition at harvesting
Grapes should be harvested in the morning after the dew has dried, or post-harvest diseases can be a problem. Keeping the vineyard mowed and free from weeds speeds fruit drying. As the fruit approaches maturity, use a hand refractometer to determine an acceptable sugar level for harvest (approximately 16 to 21 per cent as glucose). Harvest vines more than once to maximise yield and quality. After the ripe clusters are removed, the smaller immature clusters will rapidly ripen and increase in sugar content. Cut defective portions of clusters by clipping off the berry stems.
The alcohol content of the wine depends on the sugar content at harvest. Consistently low sugar levels at harvest indicate that photosynthesis is not proceeding as well as it should during growth. Photosynthesis can be improved with a phosphate and micronutrient fertiliser containing nitrogen, potash, magnesium and sulphur in adequate levels, eg, Super Energy liquid fertiliser.
Some varieties of grapes are susceptible to uneven or delayed ripening. Unbalanced fertilisation with poor vigour, and uncontrolled weeds and grass and heavy shade are some of the problems, including injury from insects or fungus- type diseases. Removing leaves mainly around the clusters, close to harvest, allows better light penetration and helps ripening.
Concepts in Nutrition
Utilisation by plants of the large number of essential nutrients for growth and reproduction is influenced to a great extent by the external environmental factors. These are temperature range, light intensity, air quality, water supply, nutrients supply, together with the presence of beneficial microbes, or the absence/ presence of disease organisms, The understanding of the environmental factors on plant health and productivity has led to a paradigm change to modern dynamic concepts of nutritional management.
The concepts derived from Liebig’s law of the minimum, and Blackman’s law of limiting factors are still very relevant today. However, our understanding of the plant’s relationship with the environmental factors has progressed remarkably; for example microbes living in synergy with plants on the leaf surface (phyllosphere) and the rhizosphere, and the conversion of all simple nutrient forms to more complex but biologically useful organic forms by microbes and plants. Nutritional concepts and management has become much more sophisticated. Another area of improvement in our understanding is that it is futile to consider nutrients in isolation. Plant growth and preparation for reproduction relies on an efficient photosynthesis process linking together complex contributions from all the nutrients.
Multiple deficiencies of nutrients are often responsible for poor performance by plants, and departures of several nutrients simultaneously from optimum levels are serious barriers to obtaining yield maximums (Wallace,A. J. Plant Nutrition., 1986). According to Wallace, nutrient stresses do not act independently, and if four different plant nutrients are present in supply and ratio each at eg. 90% of optimum, and if all the other nutrients are optimum, the additive summation of the nutrient stress is…0.90 X 0.90x 0.90 X0.90 = 0.66 or 66%. Then only 66% of yield maximum is possible, provided that no other major stresses are present. However if one of the four deficient nutrients is only 50% of optimum, nutrient stress is then 0.50 X 0.90 X 0.90 X 0.90 = 0.36 and only 36% of yield maximum is possible.
This explains the devastating effect on yields of multiple nutrient deficiencies. The presence of simultaneously acting multiple deficiencies makes chemical analysis of grape petioles or grain (see Publications: Grain Analysis) of importance in improving yields by correcting deficiencies of major, secondary, trace and ultra-trace elements. Fortunately, the advent of extremely sensitive methods of chemical analysis, notably Inductively Coupled Plasma – Mass Spectrometer is going to substantially increase worldwide the quality and productivity of crops.

CEREALS

Under Nutrition Management on your website, you discussed multiple nutrient deficiencies in relation to maximum yield. I crop field peas and lupins followed by cereals the following year. How can I achieve maximum yield for wheat and barley?

Achieving maximum yield for field crops is not an easy task, not only because you have to contend with large areas composed of changing conditions (eg soil types, fertility, drainage etc), but also because you will need to achieve maximum photosynthesis efficiency for your crops.
Photosynthesis efficiency is a highly complex subject, and photosynthesis is, undoubtedly, the most important biological process on earth on which we have to rely on not only for growing crops but also to reduce increasing greenhouse gas and soften the climatic changes associated with it.
Photosynthesis is a seamless energy intensive process, which combines carbon from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water to form carbohydrates and release of oxygen, followed by respiration. Plant respiration is where a part of the carbon fixed as carbohydrate is burned chemically in the tissues for energy generation in the presence of oxygen and release of carbon dioxide. The whole physical and chemical environment around the plant are part of the photosynthesis process, which means each environmental factor will have to be optimum for maximum yield to occur.
Chemically, the process of photosynthesis relies on utilising the absorbed solar radiation to split the chemical bonds of water and combine with carbon dioxide to first form glucose. From glucose is derived proteins (with nitrogen from fertiliser), nucleic acids (nitrogen and phosphate from fertiliser) and other compounds (eg. starch, cellulose, oils and fats).
The whole photosynthesis process relies on the orderly movement of electrons for reduction (gain of electron) and oxidation (loss of electron) for synthesis of compounds to occur. Trace elements, being good sources of electrons are particularly critical for the absorption of solar radiation and for photosynthesis to proceed orderly at an optimum rate for maximum production of glucose. You can imagine trace elements to be the spark plugs in the engine of photosynthesis. Many different shapes and size of spark plugs, some very small but vital, are needed to fit in and make the engine run efficiently. Leave some out, and it would run like a V8 on 6 spark plugs.
Maximum theoretical yield for wheat has been calculated by scientists to be approximately 15 tons of grain per hectare (1.5 kilograms grain per square metre of land), while in practice, farmers in Europe (UK) have sometimes achieved maximum, attainable, yields of 12 tons per hectare of grain. Certainly very impressive, considering all the factors would be close to optimum to achieve this level of yield; and which gives rise to optimism that there is much room for improvement of yields in Australia. Maximum attainable yield of cereals in Australia is approximately 10 tons per hectare, as some farmers who have followed our recommendations and used sufficient amounts of trace elements and nitrogen have achieved this level of yield. Because of the risk of reduced rain during the seed-fill period, we should realistically aim for maximum economic yield; which should be about 6 tons per hectare in Australia.
Average yields of wheat are however quite mediocre; approximately 1.8 tons per hectare here and about 2.8 tons per hectare in Europe. Its anybody’s guess what average yields are in the USA, Argentina and Canada (our main market competitors for wheat). Because of rising input costs equating approximately to money obtained for 1 ton to 1.5 tons of grain (“break even”), it is no surprise that grain growers are under stress and find it hard to relax their efforts. In recent years crop yield increases have slowed dramatically in both less-developed and developed countries worldwide. source: USDA-ARS, Agronomy Department (Limits to Crop Yield; T.R. Sinclair), University of Florida USA, calling for large increases in agricultural research. An essential feature of such research would be to identify the input resources that are needed for growth of the plant and production of grain (source). Western Fertiliser Technology Pty Ltd is recommending to farmers to concentrate on (in order of priority) applying sufficient trace elements, nitrogen, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium and other nutrients calculated from actual uptake levels from grain targeted to a desired yield (see below).
Heat and light intensity (solar radiation) are climatic factors not lacking in Australia, USA, Argentina and Canada. Europe is not as warm, but has long days of sunshine during the growing season. Our advantage is that we are able to grow hard white, high protein wheats, whilst Europe grows mainly higher yielding, lower protein softer wheats. Quality of air too is not a problem for wheat growing nations, which include China and India. In fact, increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere would benefit photosynthesis and plant growth (though not necessarily grain yields). Broadacre crops are usually rain-fed, so rainfall is an uncontrollable factor in photosynthesis unless irrigation is available. That leaves nutrients and microbes; two factors on which we will have to concentrate on if we are to improve photosynthesis efficiency and grain yields for broadacre crops.
Surprisingly, the importance of nutrition for sustainable agriculture or in achieving high (maximum) yields is not always recognised by farmers; arising perhaps from worries about the weather, commitments on expensive machinery and reliance on a diminishing soil resource and minimum fertiliser application for sustenance of crops. Perhaps too, nutrition is viewed by farmers as a complex subject; best left to their farm advisers and fertiliser suppliers. Increasingly though, as agriculture becomes more competitive, and political, with the rapid increase in the price of oil and natural gas, more farmers are now taking a personal interest in nutrition.
In view of your question, perhaps we should enlarge on the relevant laws of nutrition and concepts discussed earlier. Liebig’s law of the minimum states that the yield of any crop is dependent on that particular nutrient which is present in the least, most deficient amount. Blackman’s law of limiting factors states that when a process is governed by a number of separate factors (eg. nutrients, temperature range, light intensity, water-supply), the rate of the process (photosynthesis as discussed here) is limited by the pace of the slowest or limiting factor. Recently, Wallace (Journal of Plant Nutrition, 1986) explained that nutrient stresses do not act independently; yield reduction effects due to departure of several nutrients simultaneously from optimum levels are multiplied, and are serious barriers to obtaining yield maximums. In other words, a serious deficiency of even one minor nutrient costing perhaps a few cents, and environmental stress can have serious effects on plant quality and yield. Wallace’s explanation and calculations of the deleterious effects of multiple nutrient deficiencies on yields can perhaps be viewed as the opposite effect of synergism, where the interaction of nutrients can produce combined favourable effects on yield greater than the sum of their separate effects.
You could calculate fertiliser nutrient needs for maximum yield of wheat and barley grain, by multiplying each nutrient content, from the upper medium range (see; Publications, Grain Analysis) with the desired maximum yield target of eg. 6 tons grain per hectare. For nitrogen, the amount needed would be approximately 122 kg per hectare as nitrogen or 260 kg per hectare as urea (applied at 26 grams per square metre); for phosphorus at 20.4 kg per hectare or 225 kg per hectare as single superphosphate (applied at 22 grams per square metre). The remaining nutrient needs are calculated in the same way in the table below for each element.
Fertiliser rates (approximate minimum) for 6 tons per hectare Wheat calculated from Grain Analysis (see: Publications page)


kilograms/ha

grams/ha

Nitrogen (N)

122

-

Phosphorus (P)

20.4

-

Potassium (K)

36

-

Magnesium (Mg)

8.8

-

Sulphur (S)

8.6

-

Copper (Cu)

-

25

Manganese (Mn)

-

370

Zinc (Zn)

-

180

Iron (Fe)

-

190

Boron (B)

-

33

Molybdenum (Mo)

-

4

Cobalt (Co)

-

0.4
A portion of the major and secondary elements, comprising NPK, Ca, Mg and S could be applied before sowing, and a portion with trace elements as liquid fertilisers at 5-leaf and at tillering. Super Energy liquid trace elements can also be used pre-plant with herbicide, and as a seed coating at the rate of 3 litres plus 15 litres of water per ton of seed for vigorous germination and establishment. It can also be used at tillering with a compatible post-emergent herbicide (always do a jar test before use). To calculate the amount of Super Energy needed to supply sufficient trace elements for 6 tons of wheat, divide the grams per hectare needed (eg. 25 grams for copper) with the analysis of copper (6.0 grams per litre). The minimum amount of Super Energy needed to satisfy copper for 6 tons per hectare of wheat grain is approximately 4 litres per hectare.
The nutrient ranges used for calculation of the fertiliser elements in the table above for wheat grain has been drawn from a large number of samples collected over a long period of time and from different locations (see: Publications, Grain Analysis). Nutrient ranges for barley, lupins and canola can be obtained by contacting the Agricultural Chemistry Section of the Chemistry Centre of WA. Alternatively, the minimum nutrient requirements for maximum yield can be obtained for any crop by careful sampling and accurate analysis of grain sampled from a single crop displaying the desired yield per hectare together with quality, eg. 6 tons grain as above. In addition to nutrient requirements, there are of course several other agronomic conditions that need to be satisfied to achieve maximum yield (see: Technical Questions).
Faced with the simultaneous, growing problems of decreasing yields, increasing greenhouse gas, increasing population pressures and declining resources, nations would have to resort to highly sophisticated agriculture. Chemical analyses with powerful instruments such as ICP-MS, which can pinpoint trace and ultratrace elements down to the parts per billion levels, will be needed. Organic chemists, microbiologists and plant physiologists working on elucidation of the metabolism of plants and microbes on the phyllosphere (leaf surface) and rhizosphere (surface and interior of roots) will show the way to increase productive growth of crops and trees, and the means for conserving nutrients. Research on the conversion of simple nutrient forms to biologically useful organic forms for plants by microbes (eg, vitamin B12), for improved metabolism and photosynthesis process in plants would increase.
Restoring and increasing forested areas, with fertilisers applied with aircraft to fix atmospheric carbon dioxide as cellulose in trees could become an urgent priority for countries. Agronomists should work closely with analytical chemists to maintain optimum levels of nutrients in seeds, the first fertiliser package for the plant, and a valuable indicator of nutrient status and fertiliser requirement. Fertilisers from manufacturers should be more complete and formulated to prevent nutrient deficiencies from occurring; to improve utilisation by plants and microbes and improve photosynthesis rates. Farmers will increasingly rely on nutrient data from high yielding fruit and grain crops to obtain optimum levels of the nutrients. If the cost of industrially fixed nitrogen increases, as it inevitably will unless oil and gas prices fall, farmers will increasingly rely on leguminous crops and nitrogen-fixing microbes.

Thank you for the grain analysis results for my 2007 canola crop. Based on the fertilizer program you had provided me before the start of seeding last year, the canola crop yielded an average of 3.5 tons per hectare, with oil content averaging 46.5%. I was very pleased with both the yields and quality. Can you provide me with a similar integrated program for high-protein wheat for the 2008 crop, with a targeted yield level of approximately 4 – 5 tons per hectare and protein at a minimum 12%?

I have planned your wheat program this year in a similar way to last year’s canola program.  Grain analysis of your canola should identify any nutrients that are marginal to deficient, which can be adjusted accordingly for the 2008 wheat crop.  Your canola sample yielded the following results:
Analysis of your 2007 canola grain
H (High Range)
M (Medium Range)
L (Low Range)

Protein (N x 6.25)
18.8% (H)
Phosphorus (P)
0.47% (M)
Potassium (K)
0.59% (M)
Sodium (Na)
<0.01% (L)
Calcium (Ca)
0.34% (M)
Magnesium (Mg)
0.30% (M)
Sulphur (S)
0.31% (L)
Iron (Fe)
40 ppm (L)
Copper (Cu)
2.6 ppm (M)
Manganese (Mn)
30 ppm (M)
Zinc (Zn)
28 ppm (L)
Boron (B)
11 ppm (M)
Molybdenum (Mo)
1 ppm (M)
Cobalt (Co)
<0.01ppm (L)


From the above results, we should place some emphasis on the nutrients sulphur, sodium, zinc, iron and cobalt levels, which falls in the low range for canola (see: Nutrition Management page on this website). The protein level was very good, indicating that nitrogen was not limiting, and phosphorus and potassium were at medium levels.
To plan the inputs for the 2008 wheat crop, a table of the kilograms of major nutrients and grams of trace elements removed by a 4-ton crop of wheat per hectare is given below.
Nutrients removed by a 4-ton crop of wheat (see Grain Analysis, Technical Questions page on this website)
82 kg Nitrogen
13.6 kg Phosphorus
24 kg Potassium
2.1 kg Calcium
5.8 kg Magnesium
5.8 kg Sulphur
124 grams Iron
16 grams Copper
248 grams Manganese
120 grams Zinc
22 grams Boron
2.6 grams Molybdenum
0.24 gram Cobalt


As you have obtained good results using gypsum and dolomite as soil amendments on your farm, we shall continue this practice together with minimal tillage to conserve soil carbon and soil structure. Sea salt is now included in the amendment for pastures and stock.
Coating pre-seeding urea with Soil and Foliar liquid trace elements allows a single pass, as well as helping to prevent volatilization as ammonia if seeding is held up for some reason.
The practice of coating seeds with Super Energy Seed Treatment gives the young plant an early start and vigor as major nutrients and trace elements are available close to it on the seed coat during germination and establishment. This will provide a good start and early root establishment, so important these days from unreliable and patchy rainfall due to climate change.
We will use sufficient granular NPKS fertilizer applied under the seed at seeding time to meet nutrient needs. Remember though, that the soil holds quite a bit of phosphorus as a bank from earlier applications. If your soil test results show a high level of available phosphorus and potassium, you could reduce the amount of DAP and Potash by about 10 – 20%.
Foliar application with Super Trace organic liquid fertiliser and Rich Green liquid nitrogen early at 5-leaf stage allows the establishment of beneficial microbes on the phyllosphere (leaf surface), which helps to antagonize the growth of airborne pathogens thereby protecting the plant from disease (see: Technical Questions page this website; How do microbes fit in with foliar absorption?). Because trace elements in biomass feeds microbes in the soil to increase carbon sequestration and nitrogen fixation, trace elements in fertilisers such as Super Energy Seed Treatment and Super Trace organic liquid fertiliser occupy increasing importance in the new range of technologies needed urgently for reversing global warming and climate change.
So here is your 2008 program for high-protein wheat -
WHEAT PROGRAM (Target yield: 4 – 5 tons/ha. Protein: 12% minimum)
(1) Soil amendments: One to two months before seeding wheat, apply 250 kg/ha Gypsum, 250 kg/ha Dolomite and 100 kg/ha sea salt on the canola stubbles. Amendments are applied each year to subsequent crops and pastures.
(2) Apply suitable pre-emergent herbicide after the onset of rains and weed germinations, before sowing.
(3) Pre-seeding nitrogen: Spread 120 kilograms per hectare of urea (coated evenly with 2 litres of Soil and Foliar Zinc and 2 litres of Soil and Foliar Manganese) a day or two before sowing. Soil should have sufficient moisture for sowing.
(4) Seed Treatment: 5 litres Super Energy Seed Treatment mixed with 3 litres water for each ton of seed. Apply only on the same day sowing commences, together with fungicide if needed.
(5) Seeding: Sow seed with 75 kilograms per hectare of DAP pre-mixed with 75 kilograms per hectare of Potassium Sulphate chips or powder.
(6) 5-leaf stage: Apply through a boom sprayer 10 litres of Super Trace organic liquid fertiliser mixed with 30 litres of Rich Green liquid NS fertilizer.
(For more details on listed products, see Products page on Western Fertiliser Technology Pty Ltd website www.wftptyltd.com.au).
Costing:
Gypsum
Dolomite
Sea Salt
Herbicide
Seed
Urea
Soil and Foliar Zinc
Soil and Foliar Manganese
Super Energy Seed Treatment
Fungicide
DAP
Potassium Sulphate chips
Rich Green liquid nitrogen
Super Trace organic liquid fertiliser

*For wheat yield targets lower at 2 - 2.5 tons/ha, the inputs above can be halved for economy.

I grow cereals, lupin and field peas and also run sheep on my 1600 ha farm in the wheatbelt. Recent price increases in farm inputs has been dreadful and a serious worry for my income. Should I “get big or get out!” ?

Whether or not to increase farm size to increase income is a complex issue for most farmers under pressure from increased input costs of fertilisers, fuel and chemicals.
The net income of your farm is governed by the relationship: Net Income = Area x Yield x Price (Grain and Wool) - Input Costs From above, it can be seen that the income multiplying factors are Area (A), Yield (Y) and Price (P) whilst input costs (C) reduces income. In an ideal farm economy, one should strive to achieve maximum attainable A, Y and P with the lowest possible costs, but in the real world this is seldom achieved. Unless governments are vigilant, a worst-case scenario for farmers of low yields, low prices for produce and high input costs could develop, setting back efforts to slow global warming by increasing farm-based biosequestration of carbon dioxide.

To help you to decide, we can briefly examine each income affecting factor and try to optimize them so as to achieve improved profitability and increase net income from your farm.

AREA
There is an excellent correlation between larger farm size and increased income for farmers, and generally, farm size increases with the level of economic development in countries. In the past decades, average farm size has increased in Australia in line with other high-income countries. Increased farm size allows fixed costs and overheads to be spread over a higher level of production. The trend in Australia indicates a consolidation of operations with fewer farms but the same amount of farming land around 769 million hectares.

There is a high percentage (70 -90%) of farms with areas less than 5 hectares in most parts of the world which includes Asia, Africa, parts of Europe, and Latin America. In this respect I would consider your farm to be fairly large, so you should have much scope for increasing your income with improved productivity management.

A new and early trend in Australia is for some farmers to “get big” by cropping massive areas of 80,000 to 100,000 hectares. Whether or not this is a good strategy only time will tell. Success would depend on favorable weather, tightly-controlled financing, steady or increased prices for cereals, legumes and canola, close supervision of operations, moving expensive and large machinery where needed, and most importantly, getting the nutrition and cropping technology right. As the size of the farm increases beyond an optimum size the risks increase remarkably and it can be stressful waiting for rain at critical times or in trying to avoid leaf disease and damaging frosts. Climate change could increase risks as normal seasons have turned into hard-to-predict seasons.

By spreading the cropped area over a very wide area, farmers hope to reduce the risks from inadequate or untimely seasonal rain or frosts in a particular area. Agricultural technology to improve fertiliser and water-use efficiency, together with improved nutrition to lower risks is particularly critical for a large farm. As area (A) is a multiplying factor, even small improvements in yield from improved nutrition of crops can significantly increase income from a large farming enterprise.

As small farms greatly outnumber large farms globally, the challenge to governments is for helping farmers adapt technologically to changing climates. Financing sustainable practices in small farms is increasingly important as economies of scale are absent, and has to be made up by substantial increases in productivity. Concentrating on rural economic development of small farms is urgently needed now to address developing food security problems in many countries.

YIELD
This website has often underlined the importance of improving photosynthesis, the process by which green plants use the sun!s energy to build up food reserves for the seed . For cereals and legumes, part of your enterprise, improvements in nutrition management, better seeds and varieties, efficient tillage and pest control result in improved photosynthesis and an increase in the harvest index (HI). Harvest index is the ratio of the weight of seed to the total weight of mature plant at harvest. Increasing yield therefore depends on increasing both crop biomass (small petite plants don!t do much for yield) and the harvest index, which for wheat should be approximately 50% of biomass.

Grain legumes such as lupin and field peas in your rotation helps to maintain soil fertility and increase the N economy of soils to counter rising costs of fertiliser N. Lupin crops also provide a disease break for cereals and produce more dry matter (carbon) due to high vegetative growth. However growing lupin crops has been less rewarding because of low harvest indices of 0.43 - 0.25 or less, which is usually obtained for forage type legumes such as vetch. Harvest indices for lupin grain has a potential of 0.50 - 0.60, indicating a need for improved nutrition and monitoring nutrient sufficiency through grain analysis.

Wide-row trials (50 cm) for lupin crops by the Dryland Research Institute (source: Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia; R J French and M Harries, 2007) has found improvements in harvest index from improved water supply at seed-fill for average seasonal conditions. Other benefits of wider spacings for lupins could be improved interception of solar radiation by developing green pods and less humidity in the crop canopy discouraging disease development. For substantial increases in yields of lupins, I recommend use of 50 cm rows and superphosphate blended with potassium sulphate, granular magnesium sulphate and some sea salt (Dampier Salt) at seeding, plus foliar-applied trace elements as Super Trace or Super Energy.

Preventing deficiencies and improving nutrient balance with grain analysis improves the proportion of photosynthesis products partitioned to the seed; sink capacity is increased with less shedding of flowers for cereals, legumes and canola leading to increased numbers, size and weight of seed which increases harvest index and yield. Visual indicators of improved nutrition are increased stay-green of biomass, large and tenacious flowers, and increased immunity of plants to environmental and biotic stress.

Inadequate nutrition leading to poor water-use efficiency are large contributory factors to low yields as, contrary to expectations, some farmers in higher rainfall areas are harvesting lower yields than some farmers in dryer areas. Water-use efficiency of crops in broadacre dryland farming can be improved markedly by using balanced fertilisers together with carefully integrated management packages. If your yields are district average or lower there is much scope for improving your income.

Fertiliser wastage should be avoided due to the sudden and large increase in prices, and increasing fertiliser efficiency is paramount for reducing costs by increasing productivity. For example, let us look at DAP (diammonium phosphate) granular fertiliser that you use for seeding cereals. Although a high analysis source for N & P, ordinary DAP lacks critical sulphur as well as potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride and trace elements. Sodium is an important element too for your clover based pastures and forage legumes. An integrated fertiliser management package you could consider with DAP fertiliser is discussed in the section above for wheat, which includes the soil amendments dolomite (MgCO3.CaCO3), gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and use of potassium sulphate, sea salt and seed and foliar-applied liquid fertilisers. Liquid fertilisers can be used for coating the granular fertilisers DAP, superphosphate or urea with trace elements at seeding time, improving root growth.

Planned nutrition is vital for productive pastures, atmospheric nitrogen fixation by clovers and wool quality together with improved health of sheep. Superphosphate plus potash fertiliser routinely used for pastures is remarkably improved by use of liquid Super Trace or Super Energy which supplies trace elements to improve pasture growth and seed-set.

PRICE and COSTS
Without needing to elaborate, income is highly dependent on the prices farmers obtain for their produce. Prices change according to supply and demand, growing conditions around the world, marketing systems in use and increase in input costs. Recent rises in food and grain prices (wheat, rice, corn, soya bean, canola) reflect increased costs of production and lower global reserves. Counting on high prices to support income is a risky strategy for the longer term. Relying on increased yield and quality to improve income is a better strategy. Keeping up-to-date with technology improvements is therefore crucial for increasing farmers! incomes.

Markets for wheat, barley, rice, canola etc is highly competitive between nations, and nations who quickly adopt and disseminate new technologies of production locally increase supply which tend to drive down prices when demand is lower. Technologyefficient nations with high productivity can afford to market at lower prices, whilst nations with lower productivity and production volumes are less able to compete on price. The U.S.A, Canada and leading countries in EU has seen remarkable improvements in yields of cereals in the past decade. Cooperation and helpful sharing of information among farmers themselves is of great importance. In Australia there is a move by big growers to amply increase on-farm storage of grain, enabling savings and more profitable marketing decisions as well as gaining a better price for their quality produce.

LEGUMES

Growing legumes profitably on our farm has been a problem for us. We have tried lupin, faba beans, desi and kabuli chick peas and field peas. Yields are always low or about half that of cereals. Clover growth is also unsatisfactory. What is the cause of low yields? If we can increase yields of legumes it would be a big bonus for us.

An existing worldwide problem is the low yields of legume crops, when compared to the common cereal crops. Legumes such as the common bean are an important part of the diet in developing countries, providing many health benefits. In developed countries, the emphasis on growing continuous crops of cereals needing large amounts of nitrogen fertilisers is facing severe constraints due to rising costs (source: Agronomy Department, University of Florida, USA; T.R. Sinclair: Increasing yield potential of legume crops - similarities and contrasts with cereals).
The answer to your question lies in understanding the marked differences in the physiology and nitrogen metabolism of legumes versus the non-legume cereal crops wheat, rice, barley, oats, and the other economically important non-legume crops potato, canola, sugar etc.
The legume or the pulse family of plants is economically second only to the grasses, providing nutritive foods to man and animals because of the high-energy food stored for the plant embryo in the seed. The pulses are a large family, composed of approximately 650 genera and 17,000 species. Legume foods are rich in protein and sulphur amino acids, and are an indispensable source of the minerals phosphate, potassium, calcium, magnesium and the important trace elements; and are often used as meat substitutes for people in less developed countries. Pulses provide rich forage and fodder for animals, and have a vast array of uses as fibres, flavourings, perfumes, and as insecticides. The organic forms of the nutrients in dry matter makes legume crops (eg. clovers and lupins) particularly desirable as green-manure to raise the nitrogen, organic matter content and fertility for the following cereal and other crops. Most legumes however have a low tolerance of salt, which reduces yields.
Grain analysis (see: Technical Questions) is a valuable starting point to examine the different physiological needs of legumes, cereals and oilseeds. Plant growth has the sole purpose of preparing a source of suitable food in seeds for the establishment and growth of the embryo. An analysis of the contents of the seed should reveal the differing physiological and nutritional needs of the young plant.
The key advantage of legumes is their ability to form symbioses with specific bacteria in the root nodules, which can fix nitrogen from the air into organic nitrogen compounds for conversion into protein by the plants. In return, plants provide food to microbes as carbohydrates from photosynthesis in leaves and stems, and minerals absorbed from the soil. Indeed this amazing cooperation between plants and microbes is the reason for the seeds (fruits) of legumes to be a rich source of proteins, carbohydrates and minerals. Clover-based pastures have been the chief support of nutrition for the livestock and wool industry in Australia. In addition, rotation of crops with pastures allows the build-up of nitrogen and valuable organic matter to improve soil structure and fertility for the following crops. Sustainable agriculture would be impossible without the contribution of legume plants.
In the table below, an analysis of the nutrient contents of barley, canola and lupin seeds are shown. The analyses are the average concentration levels of samples received and analysed at the Chemistry Centre of Western Australia over a long period of time, from different locations in the State. The low to high ranges for lupin seed is also shown.
 

 

-------------------------% as received------------------------

 

-------------------------ppm as received-----------------------

 

Protein

P

K

Na

Ca

Mg

S

 

Fe

Zn

Cu

Mn

B

Mo

Co

BARLEY

10.9

0.18

0.41

0.02

0.03

0.11

0.13

 

39

13

2.5

17

*

*

*

CANOLA

14.5

0.51

0.64

0.01

0.34

0.30

0.53

 

50

36

2.7

26

11

*

*

LUPIN

34.0

0.34

0.84

0.04

0.24

0.18

0.24

 

33

28

3.3

16

*

*

*

low –

26

0.18

0.57

0.01

0.14

0.14

0.16

 

20

11

1

4.2

*

*

*

high range

48

0.63

1.66

0.11

0.46

0.30

0.34

 

110

46

6.9

76

 

 

 


Symbiosis begins when rhizobia in the soil gains access to the interior of legume roots via infection threads, forming nodules. Inoculation of the seed with suitable rhizobium strains therefore increases nodule numbers and yields. The internal structure of the nodule is designed as an extremely clever and efficient chemical factory, both to house the bacteria, and conditions to produce ammonia efficiently and convert it to organic N compounds for the plant. Legumes produce nitrogen compounds with a ureide (urea) and/or an amide (amino or ammonia) type structure. Ureides are transported to plant parts via meristematic tissue, and amides travel via the phloem. Legumes that transport ureides via the xylem, such as soybean and cowpea, are very sensitive to soil drying (source). Soil drying effects are countered in the lupin and alfalfa (lucerne) legume plants by the possession of deep root systems.
In return for the fixed N compounds, plants feed the bacterial colonies with energy in the form of sugars and carboxylic acids produced by photosynthesis. This chemical energy is utilised to convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into ammonia and then to N compounds.
The chlorophyll molecule, activated by magnesium is central to the photosynthetic responsibilities of the plant, whilst the high molecular weight enzyme, nitrogenase, activated by iron and molybdenum is central to the nitrogen-fixing responsibilities of the bacterial nodules. The nitrogenase complex is very sensitive to atmospheric oxygen, which can deactivate it. To prevent deactivation of nitrogenase, the plant produces a special form of hemoglobin called leghemoglobin, containing iron. This protein has a high affinity for binding to and transport of atmospheric oxygen, much like our own blood hemoglobin. In fact, it has a pink-red colour too.
Farmers who want a high harvest index and yield from the legume plants, should therefore ensure that plant and bacteria are supplied with adequate magnesium, suitable types of iron compounds for availability, molybdenum and other nutrients.
Nitrogen fixation in legumes require phosphorus (P) in reasonably large amounts compared to cereals, to sustain the high energy flow pathways as ATP (adenosine triphosphate), including trace elements as sources and acceptors of electrons. Oilseeds such as canola also require high phosphate for the formation of phospholipid compounds for cellular membranes. The physiology of legumes is therefore markedly different to that of cereals and canola, so fertilisers that contain sufficient phosphorus, magnesium, and trace elements and ultratrace elements are needed for productive growth. In addition, potassium is needed for buffered control of pH in cellular reactions, together with sufficiently high amounts of sulphur for the production of various sulphur compounds (eg. cysteine, cystine, methionine, glutathione etc.) involved in biosynthesis reactions. Boron and cobalt are often forgotten in fertilisers for legumes despite being components in the synthesis of carbohydrates and vitamin B12 by plants and bacteria respectively. Boron is also a vital nutrient for canola for a premium oil content in seeds.
In the table above, you can also see that calcium and magnesium are important components of lupin seed. Calcium and magnesium are needed in biosynthetic pathways of polymerisation and for enzymatic functions, and this is borne out by the analysis values of lupin compared to barley. Supplying organic forms of calcium by the seed resource to bacteria would encourage early colonisation. Calcium and magnesium ratio (1: 0.5) in fertilisers is close to ideal. The low to high nutrient ranges for the lupin legume seed in the table may shed more light on its physiology. Manganese is a particularly important trace element for all legumes including lupin, and also canola, for photosynthesis in the chloroplasts of leaves and stems.
Although the leguminosae are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen for growth and development, timed and judicious applications of ammonium sulphate at sowing assists crop establishment, provided balanced fertilisers and trace elements have been used. Nitrogenous fertilisers should not be used however where delayed ripening must be avoided on account of an unfavourable climate. At the pod-filling stage, liquid fertiliser as a mixture of Richgreen N-S and Super Energy has been found to increase the number of seeds per pod and pod length. Generous applications of phosphate and sulphur liquid fertilisers together with potassium and trace elements accelerate ripening in regions with a short growing period. Regular applications of Liquid Lime and Super Energy will markedly improve the productivity of pastures.

Fertiliser nutrient management

What is NPK mentality? What makes a good NPK fertiliser?

The term NPK mentality was coined many years ago by influential agricultural scientists of the day, who believed more in the productivity of organic composts and manures than chemical type NPK fertilisers. They believed that the organic forms of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in organic fertilisers were preferred by plants to inorganic forms, when in fact it is probably the slow degradation and slow release of plant nutrients in organic matter that gives organic matter its fertilising value. Plants and microbes convert simple inorganic nutrients to valuable assimilable organic forms for humans and animals. While there is no doubt today that organic matter is the most important component of a fertile soil, inorganic chemical NPKS fertilisers are still the prevailing source of the major nutrients for agriculture, especially broadacre. Other leading agricultural scientists wanted to place less emphasis on NPK ratios, which often came at the expense of lower or absent secondary nutrients calcium, magnesium, sulphur and trace elements in the formulations. In reality, NPK ratios are still widely used today to indicate analysis values of fertilisers and for preferred use with certain crops. A step forward for everyone could be for manufacturers to include too the percentages and ratios of the secondary elements, eg. 10:10:10:1:1:2 fertiliser.
Historically though, the term PNK mentality should be more correct, as this would trace the development of inorganic fertilisers. Bones (animal and human) and guano were the main source of phosphorus for earlier agricultural production before the advent of superphosphate. In an historical and far reaching address to the British Association of Science in 1840, Justus Von Liebig, a German analytical chemist, proposed the production of rapidly available phosphorus from bones, as mono-calcium phosphate instead of the di- and tri-calcium phosphates present. This led to the production of superphosphate by John Bennett Lawes, who treated a local phosphate ore with sulphuric acid, and which subsequently led to a huge expansion of food production (and population) for the world. Production of cereals such as rice and wheat were still limited then by the need for sufficient nitrogen, until the advent of industrially fixed nitrogen led to a surge in the popularity of P&N fertilisers such as superphosphate and ammonium nitrate. It was later discovered that the third major nutrient element, potassium, added to the mix as potassium nitrate (saltpeter), improved production of staple crops even further. Other fertiliser compounds, eg. ammonium sulphate, ammonium phosphates, potassium nitrate, potassium chloride, urea, potassium phosphates; together with the secondary element compounds as calcium nitrate, magnesium sulphate, magnesium nitrate, magnesium ammonium phosphate (magamp) etc. followed in time. Since then, agricultural scientists have experimented with many different formulations providing different NPK ratios for both granular and liquid fertilisers, and have found that some plants respond better and provide higher yields according to the nutrients in certain ratios. Although a wide variety of NPK fertilisers are available with different ratios, they are composed of seven basic types:

NPK ratio

Type

1:1:1

Balanced

2:1:1

N rich

1:2:1

P rich

1:1:2

K rich

2:2:1

NP rich

2:1:2

NK rich

1:2:2

PK rich
The use of various NPK ratios depends on the crop grown. For example, NP rich ratios are popular in Australia for broadacre crops as Australian soils are inherently poor in phosphorus. NPKS and trace elements use for cereals is slowly increasing as the awareness of the importance of K and trace elements to crop quality, yield and resistance to environmental stress (frost and drought) increases. PK rich ratios plus trace elements are used more often for legume crops than the NK rich ratio, the latter being popular for fruits. Where single elements such as N, P or K need to be boosted at certain growth stages, N rich, P rich or K rich formulas are often used.
A fertile soil is able to provide all the nutrients that a plant needs for productive growth in balanced proportions. An absence of the secondary nutrients and trace elements in NPK fertilisers could therefore lead to deficiencies and low yields. Another problem often encountered is a deficiency of calcium and sulphur in NPK fertilisers when high analysis phosphate fertilisers such as MAP (mono-ammonium phosphate) and DAP (di-ammonium phosphate) are used. These products are produced from the reaction of ammonia and phosphoric acid. If elemental sulphur is then added as a source of sulphur in the fertiliser, lime should be used to prevent a reduction in soil pH in the root absorption zone (rhizosphere). NPK fertilisers containing calcium, magnesium, sulphur and trace elements are aptly called premium grade fertilisers; they are usually more expensive but perform a lot better than straight NPK fertilisers and are often more economical.
There is an enormous waste of energy resources today in the world arising from the use of unbalanced NPK fertilisers, probably amounting to many billions of dollars annually. Unfortunately with nutrients there is not much room for error; as discussed earlier, a severe deficiency of a single element or multiple elements coupled with environmental stress could result in crop failures and a huge waste of investment in labour and resources. Fertiliser use efficiency arises from the promotion of the photosynthesis process for the production of plant resources, such as protein, starch, sugars, vitamins, fibre, oil, cellulose etc. All nutrients are closely involved in the photosynthesis process; yield and quality being affected if there are deficiencies present. Reduced quality for cereals may mean shrivelled grain, low protein content or poor dough qualities. For fruits it could mean small size, poor taste and colour, and a short shelf life.
Grain and tissue analysis can be used to identify limiting nutrients. As the quality and quantity of protein together with yield relies on the availability and overall metabolism of nitrogen, nitrogen use efficiency can be a good measure of the overall nutrient balance and fertiliser use efficiency. This can be measured quite easily; and in the case of cereals, would involve comparing applied N versus N uptake in grain and straw. An N-uptake index of approximately 50% only (0.5 instead of eg. 0.8) could mean that the fertiliser is unbalanced in nutrients or that nutrient deficiencies are occurring, and that photosynthesis efficiency is not optimal. Other management factors may also be responsible for the poor utility of applied nutrients by crops, and these should be identified and corrected.
A modern view in crop management is that the mode of action of inorganic NPK type fertilisers should emulate those of the desirable organic fertilisers such as stabilised composts, animal manures and plant- based green manures. The properties of organic fertilisers are too numerous to discuss fully here, but their main properties are:
Although ideal as fertilisers, the main disadvantage of organic composts and manures are their relatively low nutrient levels compared to high analysis NPK fertilisers. The amounts of nutrients taken up by a four to six-ton crop of wheat for example (see also technical questions) would require several tons of compost or manure per hectare, making it nearly impossible for broadacre cropping systems. Ideally of course, organic fertilisers should, whenever possible, be used together with NPK and trace element fertilisers for high productivity; and this practice is often adopted by cereal farmers with small farms, eg. in China and India, where productivity has improved greatly in the past decade. In Australia, farmers strive to increase the organic matter in soils by growing pastures with clovers and rotation with legume crops.
The flexibility of formulations containing secondary elements as ideal compounds, high NPK nutrient analyses together with trace elements and good chelation abilities means that liquid fertilisers can come close to or even surpass the performance of organic fertilisers. Stimulation of microbial activity can be easily provided by the use of fish emulsion in liquid fertilisers. Together with the qualities of ease of application, accurate, timely and even application plus the avoidance of segregation problems, the popularity of liquid fertilisers with farmers are set to increase dramatically within a decade.

Carbon dioxide and water management

Under Cereals in Nutrition Management, you considered increasing forest cover to reduce greenhouse gas. Is this feasible?

Sequestering (tying up) atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) as wood, and in crop products is certainly feasible. Photosynthesis could be the only feasible way to quickly and economically reduce high levels of greenhouse CO2 in the air.
An inaugural meeting last week in Sydney, the Asia-Pacific Partnership for Clean Development and Climate (Australia, China, India, Japan, Korea and United States) discussed economic development in relation to strategies to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide causing global warming. Total replacement of fossil fuels for electricity generation is still decades away, and new technology to reduce CO2 emissions from industry, transport and agriculture around the globe, or to sequester it underground, would apparently cost trillions of dollars, and would take decades to implement. Efforts at reducing emissions of CO2 should therefore be bolstered by improving the atmospheric CO2 fixation process in wood and in soils.
Do we have time or the will to turn back the tide of CO2 causing global warming and the extreme climatic effects? This is difficult to answer, as global warming does not trigger immediate, effective action from nations, as it would if a huge meteor was on a collision course with earth in, say, two years from now. In fact, there are three groups of people with different views. One group is convinced of global warming taking place with serious effects on the climate and our future and calling for action; one group is blaming it on natural causes or that the problem has been exaggerated or that too little is known about it to justify any action. The biggest group is silent, but can sense the climatic changes occurring, with increasing concern.
Joseph Fourier, in 1824, discovered the greenhouse effect. Because of their chemical structure, atmospheric CO2 (the main greenhouse gas), nitrous oxide, water vapour, methane etc. are able to absorb infra red radiation emitted by the earth, and this acts as a warm blanket over the earth. The greenhouse effect is important however because without it the earth’s average temperature would be about 35 C colder. The problem is that the blanket is getting too thick and we could be smothered!
Over the past 150 years, industrial, human and animal activities has led to a steep rise of CO2 in the air from 280 ppm to 360 ppm, a fact without dispute. Additionally, scientists report that-

An increase of 30% from the dynamic equilibrium concentration of CO2 in the air within a relatively short time is certainly a cause for alarm, as it has taken millions of years for the main components of air- nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide to stabilise. This stability created environmental conditions under which all life evolved. An increase in heat could mean profound changes to the environment and inhabitants. Scientists are worried that sea temperatures are rising, and its effect on plankton activity, the viability of corals on reefs, and the melting of ice in the artic and antarctic regions are concerns. The biggest concern is the possible melting of the permafrost in Alaska, Canada and Russia, which could release huge amounts of CO2 that could amplify global warming. They worry that we are under-estimating the rate of global temperature increase, and that this could become irreversible economically if left too late, affecting life on the planet.
In answer to your question on whether it is feasible for trees and plants to reduce CO2 levels in air, the answer lies in improving photosynthesis and water-use efficiency. Photosynthesis was the means by which ancestral plants synthesised carbohydrates, which in time, under high pressure, became hydrocarbons or the fossil fuels, which we burn for energy thereby releasing the stored carbon.
Photosynthesis takes place in the chlorophyll portions (green pigment) of all plants; in algae, phytoplankton and in some types of bacteria. It is crucial for converting solar energy into chemically bound energy for all life on earth. The overall photosynthesis reaction is:
Carbon dioxide + Water = Carbohydrate + Oxygen
6CO2 + 6H2O = C6 H12 O6 + 6O2
Each leaf in the plant is a collector of solar radiation and CO2 for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a two-stage biochemical process consisting of the light dependent photo phosphorylation process followed by the second, light independent, process where the high energy carrier molecules of ATP and NADPH, formed in the first process, are used to form the C-C bonds of carbohydrate (glucose). Carbohydrates are the initial source of chemically bound energy, which all living organisms use for life processes.
Cellular respiration for the regeneration of energy as ATP occurs in the mitochondria of cells. Stored carbohydrates from photosynthesis are reassembled; oxygen is consumed and CO2 is generated and energy is released for metabolic processes. In a series of complicated steps, glucose reacts with soluble nitrogen compounds from the soil or nodules (in legumes) to form the all-important amino acids and proteins. Glucose is also a precursor for starch, oil, cellulose, etc.
The reaction conditions under which photosynthesis occurs are the concentrations of reactants and products, temperature, and catalysis by minerals and trace elements. To have a winnable chance at reducing CO2 greenhouse gas, we would want the conditions to favour us; that is, conditions which promote the photosynthesis reaction by forming glucose, which later becomes cellulose in wood.
The increased carbon dioxide concentration in the air pushes photosynthesis in the forward direction (law of mass action), as does an increase in temperature (to a certain point) due to global warming. Minerals and trace elements such as calcium, magnesium, iron and manganese act as catalysts in enzymes, promoting photosynthesis, and is an area in which we can improve photosynthesis.
Cellular respiration in mitochondria of cells releases energy from stored carbohydrates, and cooler temperatures promote this reaction. This is an area where global warming becomes a real concern. However, large efficiency gains for photosynthesis by catalysis with minerals and trace elements should easily offset yield losses from temperature effects. Reported yield losses in rice, maize, wheat and soybeans from increased temperatures could have been made worse by undetected and untreated nutrient deficiencies.
We should ensure that there are no deficiencies of trace elements and minerals present in the fertilisers we use, either as liquid and foliar fertilisers or as granules. Many fertilisers produced today around the world are unbalanced and are in need of calcium, magnesium, potassium and trace elements. Use of balanced fertilisers improves the optimum functioning of physiological and metabolic processes within the plant; leads to water-use efficiency and an ability to withstand environmental stress such as drought or frost. Plants deficient in nutrients cannot make full use of water from rain, and CO2, for photosynthesis for the production of carbohydrates (sugar, oil, starch, cellulose etc.) even if available in sufficient quantities. Water and CO2 are the main reactants in photosynthesis, so the lack of water in plant tissues, as a result of nutritional deficiencies, is a large impediment for plants leading to poor harvests around the globe.
Reducing greenhouse gas by increasing ground cover by trees and forests means a better global management of carbon dioxide and water. Because carbon dioxide and water together form the carbohydrate food, they should be considered as nutrients in the same way as nitrogen is considered to be a nutrient.
Driving the photosynthesis reaction forward in cellular physiology are other important nutrients. These are nitrogen for proteins and enzymes, phosphorus for ATP, and potassium as pH buffers in cellular fluids. Magnesium is the central atom for chlorophyll, calcium for enzymes, sulphur for proteins and trace elements such as iron, manganese, zinc, molybdenum, boron etc as reaction promoters (catalysts) in complex enzymes.
Fortunately too, there is no global shortage of any of the above nutrients. The rise in the price of oil may be a concern however for the production of nitrogen fertiliser. The answer then could be to rely on growing more legume plants, as they are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen in the nodules. Fortunately again, legumes are a very large family (see Legumes) so we can grow them both as crops and as trees in forests.
Utilising each leaf in a crop or tree as a solar collector and a chemical factory for reclaiming emitted carbon dioxide, an indestructible, oxidised soot which threatens us, yet paradoxically a major component of food, could lead to the greening of our planet and cool comfortable climates. Each person, wherever they are, should resolve to grow at least one tree each year to pay for the clean air trees provide. Governments could resolve to grow suitable trees and forests on all public-owned vacant land. A vital step to save our planet and way of life is urgent action by Governments through all methods to reduce global warming and climate change.

To convince policy leaders to act urgently on serious global warming, do we have reliable indicators of the changes occurring?

Scientific understanding and unanimity takes time to develop, and more time is needed for recommendations to be accepted and implemented. Herein lies the problem of global warming. How much time do we have left, before runaway warming occurs, to convince decision-makers to act urgently?
Decision-makers may have been lulled into thinking that an average global temperature rise of 0.4C to 0.8C in the last 100 years is not a serious problem, as most people would. They might think too that projected average temperature increases of 1.5C to 5.8C by 2100 (up to 94 years away) could give others plenty of time to act if needed in the future. Reported temperature and greenhouse gas increases alone may not be sufficient indicators at the moment to convince them, and the public in general, of the dangers we face. The climatic changes occurring may be the result of a gradual accumulation of extra heat energy absorbed by the planet due to greenhouse gases. The amount of the heat absorbed might not be easily measured or even indicated by the increased temperatures.
The measurements are needed; however, a conceptual view of the changes occurring, from a chemical viewpoint, may be helpful. During acid-base titrations of buffered solutions, for example, chemists employ suitable pH indicators to indicate that the neutralisation, equivalence, or end-point is about to be reached. As the addition proceeds initially, little or no change is observed, until fairly sharp, rapid, exponential change occurs close to the end-point. The question is, how far away are we from a sudden and probably irreversible rise of global temperatures? Are the earth’s deep oceans, ice and the evaporation of water, acting as buffers hiding changes in heat absorption? We certainly need to know this.
During the titration and mixing which takes place, localised changes to the solution are indicated as coloured ‘hot spots’ by the indicator, and these increase in intensity and magnitude as the end-point nears, warning the chemist to slow down addition. In a global context, rapid melting of the permafrosts as heat builds up, thereby releasing billions of tons of methane and carbon dioxide in a relatively short time, are serious concerns. Are the extreme climatic events of late, such as powerful hurricanes, strong winds, lightning, extremely heavy rainfall, droughts, frosts and heavy snowfalls indicating large local changes in the heat balance before spreading globally?
Reported declining agricultural yields as a result of increased night-time temperatures is another indicator of global warming. The blanket of greenhouse gases hampers the radiative heat loss into space from the planet at night. Plants, like humans and animals, need cooling relief at night for physiological systems to operate optimally (see above: carbon dioxide and water management). Every ppm rise in the concentrations of greenhouse gases is an indicator of warming. Each ppm rise is equivalent to billions of tons of gas released to the atmosphere (see: Wikipedia, the free on-line encyclopedia). At the ‘tipping point’, which might be indicated by unremitting high global night-time temperatures, action to reduce the billions of tons of greenhouse gases then would probably be futile.
In fact, logic itself should convince decision-makers of global warming occurring and its outcome. There is no doubt today that:

Is there a solution to global warming and related problems? What should governments do for their people to prevent dangerous climate change and mortalities?

Global warming and climate change is an extremely complex matter, and from the debate among scientists there does not appear to be any one, single solution to solve the problem. Only a careful and logical approach using a combination of technological solutions could solve the problem.
Global warming is related to the production of carbon dioxide when fossil fuels are burned for energy. The use of fossil fuels for electricity, transport, fertilisers, plastics etc. has underpinned global economic progress since the industrial revolution. Annual carbon emissions are around 6 billion tons and increasing. This amounts to approximately 1 ton per annum for each inhabitant. Technologically, limitless power (CO2-free) from controlled nuclear fusion process is the answer, and is now about two to three decades away. All nations should contribute to speed up its development.
Before fusion power becomes available, a combination of technologies can be used to buy us critical time. The time for debate on global warming should soon be over, and the time for leading action by governments has come. Individual or voluntary action is useful, but the crisis is such that decision-makers and scientists of governments would need to coordinate the overall strategies. The overall strategy by nations could be to first slow down the daily rise of CO2 in the atmosphere; to bring it to a stop, and then to reverse it. We need to reverse it because current levels of 381 ppm/v of CO2, rising fast, are already causing severe problems. The immediate concerns are:
Ways of reducing the level of emissions is therefore a high priority and are being extensively introduced globally. These include nuclear (controlled fission) power stations, solar and wind power, hybrids for cars etc. Eventually, fusion power could replace power from controlled nuclear fusion.
Fast rising CO2 shows that emissions have swamped mitigation processes, so unless mitigation methods are enacted soon precious time will be lost and irreversible change could set in. The world’s oceans are responsible for mitigation of the largest portion of emitted CO2; 50% of all emitted CO2 since the industrial revolution has been absorbed. This absorption (as carbonic acid) has increased hydrogen ion concentrations in seawater by around 30%, lowering pH from 8.2 to 8.1, and in some locations even lower by 0.2 to 0.3 units. Increasing acidity and warming can lead to reduced absorption by seawater, raising CO2 levels. The carbonate-bicarbonate chemistries are complex but has been extensively studied; however the volumes to mitigate are huge (an understatement). Scientists are working on this problem, but we may be able to contribute to mitigation of CO2 through limestone addition to seawater as aragonite and/or calcite. Calcium carbonate is more soluble in colder, higher-pressure conditions than warm surface conditions. Increasing soluble calcium carbonate could help marine organisms now under stress (eg, corals in reefs) by reducing acidity. Scientists from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, USA, have recommended that limestone should be used to absorb CO2 emitted by power plants and cement factories, and that this would be a cheaper and more effective procedure than sequestering CO2 underground.
The ecological, and climate systems of our globe are dominated by the oceans, so changes in the physical and chemical conditions of oceans (temperature and pH) should be prevented irrespective of costs.
Rejuvenating established forest canopies and forest soils around the world, by CO2 absorption enhancement through photosynthesis holds the greatest promise in rapidly mitigating greenhouse gas as forests contain conditions conducive to plant growth. The closed organic nutrient cycle of forests is however not 100% effective, so over time there would be losses of nutrients through leaching, burning, and export of forest products. Application of balanced minerals and trace elements with aircraft would promote substantially increased absorption of atmospheric CO2; there are reports of up to 20% increase in CO2 fixation in forests from CO2 enhancement alone by scientists from the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA.
Improving pastureland fertility around the globe should provide a very significant reduction of emitted carbon dioxide, as carbon can be locked away in soils. Microbes and nutrients can provide the driving force for increasing the carbon content of pastures and agricultural soils.
Ethanol (flexi-fuel) produced from high-starch crops and biodiesel from canola and sunflower can be stored as future strategic reserves, lowering current emissions. Fossil fuels are irreplaceable materials for fertilisers, plastics, resins, paints, etc. and should be valued as such and not burnt.
When governments meet to decide on action and on apportioning costs, economic formulas could be derived, taking into account GDP, population, length of coastline, land area etc, to determine contributions to the effort of lowering CO2 levels in the atmosphere. If the contributions are seen to be fair and equitable, mitigation of global warming would be a success.

How do you analyse the achievements of the UN Climate Conference on Global Warming at Bali, Indonesia?

The conference at Bali, Indonesia was attended by representatives of 190 nations, all hoping for a solution to solve the urgent problem of global warming.  The conference set some broad objectives on Dec. 15, 2007 for a new pact to replace the Kyoto Protocol when it expires at the end of 2012; these being:
The climate conference succeeded because the world’s policymakers agreed with scientists that our planet and it’s inhabitants are facing dire perils, and developing nations showed a new willingness to participate in action on global warming. Technically, the conference can be seen to have run into problems that could have been avoided by groundwork and preparation before the conference began. The main sticking point for most developed nations was that if they agreed to emission cuts of 25 to 40% by 2020, developing nations should also commit to a share in cutting emissions. As commitments for contributions and efforts from both developed and developing nations were not negotiated and agreed in advance, real progress to reduce emissions were not achieved.
Losing time is a luxury we can no longer afford as climate change is advancing rapidly as emissions increase; global emissions of CO2 are now approximately 70 million tonnes each day. Contrast this to reported CO2 emission savings of one million tonnes a year from the sale of one million popular hybrid cars and we can appreciate the scale of the problem.
Every tonne of CO2 emitted now will have to be removed from the atmosphere eventually if we need to return to safer levels of CO2 for climate stability. Reducing current levels of CO2 in the atmosphere to a safer level is a far greater challenge than just reducing emissions, and we have not even started on the latter goal. In fact global emissions have increased significantly since the commencement of the Kyoto Protocol a decade ago. Global reforestation is a major solution to the major problem of elevated CO2 levels; reforestation and regeneration of forests can be achieved quickly before climates deteriorate. Global investments in renewable energies and an end to deforestation are needed. Most of all, nations need to agree soon to begin an urgent course of action. Waiting for the Kyoto Protocol to expire in 2012 before commencing global action on the new pact will cost five years of lost time, or, at least, an extra 127 billion tonnes of CO2 in the atmosphere to remove. Time is critical; the clock is ticking loudly.
Recently, I assisted a colleague to assemble a rather complex home entertainment system consisting of five speakers, a subwoofer, an amplifier, a DVD player, a plasma-TV, and several remote controls. Our aim was to put the whole hi-fi system together to perform as it should. A thoughtfully designed DIY circuit diagram showed us where the colour-coded cords fitted into the different bits plus instructions on how to fine-tune the system. There was a road map provided before we started, helping us to succeed in our objective. Thus, for the next conference on climate change to succeed, commitments given in precedence to the conference, by both developed and developing nations to contribute financially and commit to real emission targets are needed.
A system to estimate and assign a global climate-repair contributory index (GCRCI) for each participating nation is feasible before the next conference. The index could be based on a nation’s historical CO2 emissions, current CO2 emissions, and the current financial status of the nation (GDP etc.) to contribute to emission cuts. The proposed Solar and Clean Energy Initiative of the State of California, U.S.A, could be a useful model. The Initiative requires all utilities to generate 20% of their power from renewable sources by 2010, increasing to 40% by 2020 and 50% by 2025, allowing for a phased reduction of fossil fuel use with minimum impact to economies.
Once mediated, agreed and established, the global climate-repair contributory index can be used also to calculate the percentage of each nation’s contributions into a global climate fund to pay for the costs of transferring renewable energy technologies, improved agricultural management systems and financial assistance to countries in need.

To stop global warming leading to dangerous climate change and food shortages, do we need to stop CO2 emissions altogether?

The global warming problem is adding to other complex problems such as food shortages, a clear sign that the world is not responding quickly in a way that would lead to a solution. We are at a junction in time where choosing the road to take is critical for success as we are running out of time.
Imagine for a moment some people in a small boat a kilometer or two from the shore, and the boat has sprung a serious leak. Some of the people in the boat cannot swim. What should they do? Should they set up a committee to discuss repairs to the boat or should they begin to bail out the water while rowing for shore? Obviously time is critical here. The reaction of the world’s Nations to the crisis has been more like discussions about sharing the cost of repairs to the boat, rather than concerted action for survival. We cannot stop CO2 emissions altogether, but we can reduce it to a safe level, much like the in-flight emergency which faced the crew of Apollo 13 launched on April 11, 1970.
Commander James Lovell, Command Module pilot John “Jack” Swigert, and Lunar Module pilot Fred Haise could not of course stop exhaling the CO2 which was building up to dangerous levels in their small Command Module. Instead, with advice from engineers on Earth, they built a device from spare CO2-absorbing canisters to remove the increasing CO2 and survived. Apollo 13 splashed down safely on April 17, 1970 and the voyage was termed “ A Successful Failure” as the crew survived although Project Apollo failed to accomplish its task. It is said that a journey of a thousand miles begins with the first step, but we have to begin, in order to get to our destination. With global warming and climate change, failing to embark on serious action or choosing the wrong road would lead to unimaginable catastrophe for all. Earth is no different to a space capsule with its own life support systems, and Earth is in need of urgent rescue.
As I have discussed earlier on this website, reducing excessive CO2 in the atmosphere to a safer 350 ppm level is possible with the help from trees and microbes in soils for increasing carbon sequestration. Recently, James Hansen, scientist in charge of the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies and his co-researchers has warned us, based on recent science (source: theage.com.au/news/world; April 8, 2008), that the world is on a trajectory to disaster and needs a significant course correction, from 385.7 ppm now to a safer level of 350 ppm. They wrote that the European Union and its International Partners must urgently rethink targets for CO2 because of the scale of the problem and that higher targets of 450 – 550 ppm would guarantee a disaster for the world as a result of higher temperatures than those expected. They proposed reforestation as a solution, together with increasing carbon storage in soils and moves to renewable energies whilst cutting emissions.
Surprisingly, with regard to global warming, there are few warnings from our astronomers that reversion of the world to its earlier, unstable formative state should not be unexpected as a result of runaway global warming. The planets, stars and galaxies obey strict physical and chemical laws, as seen by the preponderance of hot, unfriendly, uninhabitable planets where enormous wild storms occur around the clock. The relatively mild climates of Earth as experienced now has been forged over millions of years by biology under the influence of the major forces of nature; heat, light, air, water, nutrients and microbes. It is these forces that we will need to harness and conserve as trees and renewable energies, to return to the safer 350 ppm CO2 level still within our grasp. With further delay and a rapid rise of CO2 to higher levels, we could lose this lifeline opportunity and ability to reduce CO2 levels. As each ppm of CO2 is equivalent to 2.2 billion tons of carbon and we are emitting approximately 70 million tons of CO2 a day, the need to remove CO2 becomes more acute with each passing day.
Much of the forested areas in the world has been removed over time for agricultural crops and developments, or has undergone extensive logging. Growing trees globally to absorb CO2 in order to rea